Depicting Devil in Christian art... from early middle ages to Dante

Lucifer, the fallen angel. In this post I'm trying to see how the Devil was depicted in the early christian art, examining a period of about 700 years; from the earliest surviving evidence to the time of Dante of the 14th c. I've tried to gather most of the cases so maybe to extract conclusions regarding the illustrated perspective.

• Devil in the initial religious texts
• Identifying the Devil
• The tempting Devil
• The Devil more human [05 examples]
• The dark angel [12 examples]
• Devil becoming monstrous in churches [06 examples]
• Devil becoming monstrous in manuscripts [06 examples]
• Devil as a monster during 12th & 13th centuries [22 examples]
• The dragon of the Revelations [10 examples]
• An approach for an early final judgement - Ravenna, 6th c. [04 examples]
• The Devil by Dante [03 examples]
• References

Devil in the initial religious texts

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We can identify three major themes of the appearance of evil in the New Testament; themes that gave the inspiration for some illustrations.

Firstly Devil or Satan appears in the life of Jesus mainly around their encounter in the desert; where Jesus, after being baptized by John the Baptist, fasted for 40 days and nights. There the evil spirit found the chance and tried to tempt Christ, so to make him fall into sin. There were three attempts: firstly, Satan challenged Jesus to turn some stones into bread, so to satisfy his hunger. Then, he placed Jesus on the top of the great temple of Jerusalem and urged him to fall so to prove his majesty. Finally, ascending on a high mountain, he showed him the kingdoms of the world, promising Jesus that he could have them, if he worshipped Satan.

The main narration comes from the gospels of Luke and Matthew, who are naming the teasing spirit as both Devil & Satan [= Διάβολος, Σατανάς: Luke 4:1–13, Matthew 4:1–11]. Mark just mentions the temptations in the desert [Mark 1:13]; while only implications can be found in the gospel of John. Besides the gospels, the scene was attached to the earlier David's 90th psalm [from the Old Testament], cause of a reference in the gospels' story; and thus it can be found depicted in psalters, too. In any case this is the theme that gave the majority of the medieval illustrations.

      • The name Devil [= Διάβολος] seems to be the greek translation of the hebrew Satan [= Σατανάς]; a conclusion that can be derived by comparison of the greek and hebrew versions of the Old Testament [especially in Job 1—2, Zech 3:1-2; cf. Walton [2008] & Septuagint in the relevant passages].

Another Satan's epiphany seems to be narrated around Judas' betrayal; Luke and John are mentioning that it was the Devil who made Judas to commit it, after possessing him [Luke 22:3, John 13:2]. Judas' possession and following suicide was a scene that sometimes worked as an interpretation of some lyrics of the older 108th psalm [from the Old Testament], and thus can be found depicted in the psalters, too. However, it's a rare illustrated theme.

Generally, possessions and following exorcisms by Jesus are recounted in all the three synoptic gospels [Matthew, Luke & Mark]; but those possessions were made by demons or unclean spirits, not the Satan exactly. Αlthough this theme gave maybe the earliest illustrated example, it has less instances compared to the temptations.

      • Nevertheless, it's characteristic that at an instance Jesus is accused that he's exorcizing the evil spirits in the name of Beelzebul, the lord of demons [Matthew 12:24-26, Mark 3:22-23, Luke 11:15-18]. In his defense he asks: "How can Satan drive out Satan?" My first thought was that the word Satan could be used as a quality, an adjective; not only for the leader of evil. And it's typical that in some forthcoming illustrated cases, both Satan and lesser demons could be depicted in a similar way by the same artist, implying this more general use of the term; but not always. A second thought was that the Devil was identified somehow with Beelzebul, too, maybe in the same spirit of this general use of Satan as evil. However, Beelzebul was according to the Old Testament a Philistine deity; ie. foreign to Jews [Kings (4) 1:2-3, 6, 12].

Finally, in the Revelations of John, the great enemy appears, the dragon-serpent with the seven heads [Rev 12:3-9]; and it's identified under both names, the Devil and the Satan. And despite the fact that it's a narration of the earliest christian texts, it seems taking some time to appear illustrated.

Identifying the Devil

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The possibly earliest illustration of an evil spirit in christian art, comes from the theme of exorcism; it's of late 6th c. and of eastern origin [fig. 01]. But it's unclear what demon is depicted exactly.

fig. 01: MedLaur MS Plut. 1.56, 'Rabula Gospels', Syria [ByzEmp] - 586 CE ca, f. 8v

The following later cases show definitely demons during exorcism, and not the Satan...

fig. 02: Left: Exorcism in Capernaum [as in Luke 4:31–37], in BSB Clm 4453, 'Evangeliar Ottos III', Reichenau GER [HolRomanEmp] - 1000 CE ca, f. 149v. Middle: Exorcism in Capernaum [as in Mark 1:21–28], in RBME Vitrinas 17, 'Codex Aureus of Speyer', HolRomanEmp - 1050 CE ca, f. 64r. Right: exorcism by Jesus, in BNF Grec 923, 'Sacra Parallela', Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 2nd half of 9th c., f. 211v

All these three [and other] depictions are giving the aspect of a dark demon; perspective that we'll see being applied for the Devil, too, especially in his early images. So, what were exactly his qualities, that the artists had in mind?

Although Devil appears in the New Testament, his nature seems a little unclear. His main attribute is this of the deceiver, who tries to lead souls & minds into sin. As it would be expected, the early church fathers connected the Devil with some creatures or/and angels of the Old Testament. And though this possibly had an effect on how the Old Testament was also seen, in this post I am restricting my focus only on the more clear cases of the New Testament.

The first who tried a more updated approach is possibly Tatian of the 2nd c. CE.; he spoke of a first-born demon [not using specifically the terms Devil or Satan], who actually was the first angel who sinned and rebelled against God, becoming the leader of the rest who followed him [Πρός Ἓλληνας VII: PG 6/819-821]. A little later, Irenaeus [2nd c. CE], without abandoning the connection with the Old Testamanent, called him an 'apostate angel' [from Latin, Contra Haereses 5.24.3: PG 7/1188]. While Tertullian of the early 3rd c. CE, suggested that he was the wisest of all before he became the Devil [Adversus Marcionem 2.10: PL 2/296].

Generally since the 2nd c. CE many church fathers tried to approach the nature of the Devil, such as Origen, Clement, Augustine. If I should extract a more general view, this would be of a Devil as an angel, created by God, who sinned by his own free will; a sin that led him to his fall. There was also some discussion on the nature of his sin, with envy and pride mostly suggested.

The aforementioned main lines of the angels' fall are depicted in a beautiful way in the following manuscript...

fig. 03: Bodl MS Junius 11, 'The Cædmon Manuscript', England - 1000 CE ca, p. 3

It's an illustration of what is called Genesis A; a medieval english version of the book of Genesis. A clear idea of a fallen angel. It's noticeable the need of differentiation for when the angel became the Devil. Here, it' s just declared with darker eyes and hair like flames, as seen in the down part where Lucifer is in the mouth of Hell; and compared with the upper parts where he's still an angel. Generally, in all the depictions of the Devil, this need of alteration, is obvious; becoming more and more intense.

One of the few cases where this difference isn't that clear is the following...

fig. 04: MS Rhenotraiectinae I Nr 32, 'Utrecht Psalter', Reims FRA [CarolEmp] - 830 CE ca, f. 64r, 85v

It's a detail from a 9th centrury psalter; specifically for the 108th psalm. It's a depiction of a lyric about 'diabolus' standing at the right hand of a sinner so to take him; not exactly possession. In the Byzantine or generally eastern psalters, the sinner of this psalm would be Judas. In any case, here the Devil is like an angel; he differs to the rest angels of the bigger picture only regarding his less clothes. It's almost unique case.

The tempting Devil

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As it's already been said, the main theme where the Devil appears, is around the Christ's temptations. I've tried to organize the relevant findings based on the way that the Devil was illustrated.

The Devil more human [05 examples]

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Possibly with an intention to underline the Devil's nature as deceiver. But there're really few cases; all seeming coming from central Europe. Regarding the differentiation of the Devil: in fig. 05 & 09 the Devil is totally human. In fig. 06, in one of the three temptations, a small tail can been seen. While in fig. 07 & 08 the Satan is just darker.

fig. 05: BNF Latin 9428, Metz FRA [CarolEmp] - 2nd quarter of 9th c., f. 91r

fig. 06: Boulogne-sur-mer BM MS 0020, 'Psautier d'Odbert', Saint-Omer FRA [HolRomanEmp?] - 10th c.,  f. 101r, 102r, 102v

fig. 07: RBME Vitrinas 17, 'Codex Aureus of Speyer', HolRomanEmp - 1050 CE ca, f. 26r

fig. 08: Cod. Sang. 402, 'book of Hours', Bâle CHE - 13th c., p. 18

fig. 09: Ms Barth. 180 (exh. 68), Lectionarium, Saxony - 2nd quarter of 13th c., cover

The dark angel [12 examples]

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Here, the Devil who tries to tempt Jesus, looks like an angel, but darker. An illustrating way that mostly can be seen in Eastern examples; but not only. However, the earliest maybe case, coming from Ireland or Scotland [fig. 10], is a little unclear regarding the face of this angel, while the body also seems skinny and eerie.

fig. 10: TCD MS 58, 'Book of Kells', Scotland or Ireland - 800 CE ca, f. 202v

From a 9th c. psalter; left: the temptations from 90th psalm; right: the Devil right of the sinner from 108th psalm...

fig. 11: WLB - Stuttgart Cod.bibl.fol.23, 'Stuttgarter Psalter', Saint-Germain-des-Prés FRA [CarolEmp] - 1st half of 9th c., f. 107v, 126r

From the following, besides fig. 15, all are of Byzantine origin. Unfortunately, the Devil isn't always clear regarding the head in the manuscripts. However, it seems that even in the worn off cases, in most of them at least there aren't horns.

The temptations from the orations of Gregory of Nazianzus

fig. 12: BNF Grec 510, Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 4th quarter of 9th c., f. 165r

From Sacra Parallela, a 9th c. Byzantine florilegium; temptations on left, exorcism on right.

fig. 13: BNF Grec 923, 'Sacra Parallela', Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 2nd half of 9th c., f. 123r, 211v

From a 9th c. Byzantine psalter: the temptations from 90th psalm. The Devil with Judas as the sinner from 108th psalm...

fig. 14: Moscow Hist. Mus. MS. D.129, 'Chludov Psalter', Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 1st half of 9th c., psalms 90, 108

fig. 15: BSB Clm 4453, 'Evangeliar Ottos III', Reichenau GER [HolRomanEmp] - 1000 CE ca, f. 32v

Temptations on right, again Judas as the sinner of the 108th psalm on left.

fig. 16: BL Add MS 19352, 'Theodore Psalter', Constantinople [ByzEmp] -  1066 CE, f. 123v, 157r

fig. 17: BL Add MS 40731, 'Bristol Psalter', Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 11th c., f. 154r

Maybe some start of making the Devil more monstrous; nevertheless a little unclear. On left of fig. 18, the temptation of psalm 90; where the Devil possibly could have horns [?]. But when he possesses Judas for psalm 108, it's just messy hair.

fig. 18: VAT Barb.gr. 372, Psalter,  11th c., f. 158v, 191r

fig. 19: BL Egerton MS 1139, 'Melisende Psalter', Jerusalem Kingdom - 2nd quarter of 12th c., f. 4r

fig. 20: Mosaic in Monreale Cathedral of Palermo, Sicily Kingdom - 12th c.

fig. 21: Mosaic in Chora Church,  Constantinople [ByzEmp] - 14th c.

Devil becoming monstrous in churches [06 examples]

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Since the 12th century the Devil starts seeming more eerie in the decoration of the churches. The examples are coming from mid-west Europe. And the majority of them look a little more elegant than the manuscripts of the 12th - 13th centuries. In the first example [fig. 21] the Devil has horns, that are broken after his rejection and defeat, maybe underlining that they were used as a sign of power; possibly of some pagan perspective.

fig. 22: Mosaic at the St Mark's Basilica, Venice Republic - 12th c.

fig. 23: Fresco transferred to canvas of San Baudelio de Berlanga, Castile-León - 1st half of 12th c., in MetMus

fig. 24: Fresco in Saint-Aignan de Brinay, France Kingdom - 12th c.

fig. 25: Painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, originally in Siena Cathedral, Republic of Siena - 1300 CE ca

fig. 26: Detail of stained glass window at the Chartres Cathedral, Chartres FRA - 12th c.

fig. 27: Capital at the Basilica of Saint-Andoche de Saulieu, Bourgogne FRA - 12th c.

Devil becoming monstrous in manuscripts [06 examples]

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In manuscripts, the aforementioned turn to a more monstrous shape of the Devil seems taking place earlier and more freely. The dating and origin of some of these examples made me think of a possible local pagan influence; as a result of recent christianization of the areas. The first possibly case comes from a Spanish cover book illustrating the temptations again. It's said to be of the 9th century...

fig. 28: Detail of a Spanish Book-Cover Plaque by ivory, Asturias SPA - dated in the 9th c., now in Walters Museum [W.71.50]

The possibly first depiction of the Christ's enemy with horns and goat-head seems to be of the 10th century from mid-Europe. However, it's not the Devil but just Death [= Mors]. It's really possible a pagan influence.

fig. 29: Bodl MS 579, 'Leofric Missal', Lotharingia - 10th c., f. 50r

The fact that this Death is different from the Devil can be seen illustrated in the following later manuscript coming from England. On left it's death as opposite to life-Christ. On right is the Devil in the temptation theme; nevertheless monstrous with pig-nose.

fig. 30: BL Cotton MS Tiberius C VI, 'Tiberius Psalter', Winchester? England - late 11th c., f. 6v, 10v

Another early evil creature with animal elements can be seen in the following image. However it's unclear if it's the Devil or just a demon; who is fighting for the soul of a man during the final judgement.

fig. 31: BL Stowe MS 944, 'Liber vitae', England (Winchester) - 1st half of 11th c., f. 7r

The earliest monstrous Devil in a manuscript's page that I've tracked appears in the following two examples of the 11th century; both from mid-Europe. In the first [fig. 32], the Satan has a body with few animal-like elements and a snake tongue...

fig. 32: GNM Nur Hs 156142, 'Codex aureus Epternacensis', Echternach LUX [HolRomanEmp] - 1030 CE ca, f. 20r

In the second [fig. 33], Devil is clearly a monster.

fig. 33: NK České XIV.A.13, 'Vyšehradský kodex', Vyšehrad, Bohemia Kingdom - late 11th c., f. 24v

Devil as a monster during 12th & 13th centuries [22 examples]

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During the 12th & 13th centuries Devil can be seen almost exclusively as a monster in manuscripts. With the exception of the famous Codex Gigas [fig. 55], all the following are of the temptation theme.

In the first example, along with temptations it's also given on right the Devil with Judas committing suicide, for comparison...

fig. 34: BNF Copte 13, 'Tétraévangéliaire bohaïrique', N. Egypt - late 12th c., f. 9v, 81r

fig. 35: The Hague KB 76 F 5, Saint-Omer FRA [HolRomanEmp] - 12th c., f. 12v

fig. 36: Chantilly MS 0009 (1695), 'Ingeborg Psalter', N. France - late 12th c., f. 19r

fig. 37: Glasgow UL MS Hunter 229 (U.3.2), 'Hunterian Psalter', England? - 12th c., f. 11v

fig. 38: St. Albans Psalter, St Albans England - mid 12th c., p. 33, 34, 35

fig. 39: Bodl MS Gough Liturg. 2, Psalter, England - 1200 CE ca, f. 22r, 23r, 24r

fig. 40: BL Cotton MS Nero C IV, 'Winchester Psalter', Winchester ENG - mid 12th c., f.18r

fig. 41: Morgan MS 44, 'Vita Christi', France - 12th c., f. 5v

fig. 42: BSB Clm 30055, Evangeliarium, Helmarshausen - 1188 CE ca, f. 20v

fig. 43: BSB Clm 835, 'Golden Munich Psalter', England - 1200 CE ca, f. 65r

fig. 44: Walters Ms W.34, 'Carrow Psalter', England - 13th c., f. 26v

fig. 45: BNF Latin 8846, 'Psaltier of Canterbury', Canterbury ENG - 4th quarter of 12th c., f. 3r

fig. 46: BNF Latin 8846, 'Psaltier of Canterbury', Canterbury ENG - 4th quarter of 12th c., f. 144v

fig. 47: BNF Ms 1186, 'Psaltier of saint Louis and Blanche de Castille', Paris FRA - 13th c., f. 20r

fig. 48: BL Harley MS 1527, 'Bible moralisée', Paris FRA - 13th c., f. 18v

fig. 49: The Hague KB 76 G 17, Psalter-Book of Hours, Liege [HolRomanEmp] - 2nd half of 13th c., f. 44r

fig. 50: BPL 76 A, Psalter, England - 13th c., f. 21r

fig. 51: Morgan MS 729, Psalter-Hours, Amiens FRA - 4th quarter of 13th c., f. 39v

fig. 52: BNF NAL 1392, Psalter, 13th c., f. 4v

fig. 53: BSB Clm 11308, Psalter, Upper Bavaria [HolRomanEmp] - 1st half of 13th c., f. 7v

fig. 54: Morgan MS 153, Psalter-Hours, France - 13th c., f. 18v, 19r

fig. 55: Codex Gigas, Bohemia - 13th c., f. 290r

The dragon of the Revelations [10 examples]

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Christ's enemy in the Revelations of John [the seven headed dragon], took some time to be seen illustrated in manuscripts. With one exception of the 11th century, all the rest came from the 13th.

fig. 56: Bamberg Msc.Bibl.140, 'Bamberger Apokalypse', Reichenau  [HolRomanEmp] - 1010 CE ca, f. 31v

fig. 57: BL Add MS 11695, 'Silos Apocalypse', Beatus of Liébana, Spain, North - 1100 CE ca, f. 147v, 148r

fig. 58: BL Add MS 35166, Apocalypse, England - 2nd half of 13th c., f. 26r

fig. 59: BL Add MS 42555, 'Abingdon Apocalypse', England - 3rd quarter of 13th c., f. 35v

fig. 60: BNF Français 403, Apocalypse glosée, Salisbury ENG - mid 13th c., f. 20r

fig. 61: BNF Latin 8846, 'Psaltier of Canterbury', Canterbury ENG - 4th quarter of 12th c., f. 120v

fig. 62: Bodl MS Douce 180, 'Douce Apocalypse', England - 2nd half of 13th c., p. 44

fig. 63: Trinity R.16.2, 'Trinity Apocalypse', England - mid 13th c., f. 23v

fig. 64: BL Add MS 18633, Apocalypse, England - 2nd half of 13th c., f. 23r

fig. 65: BL Royal MS 2 D XIII, Apocalypse, England - early 14th c., f. 27r

An approach for an early final judgement - Ravenna, 6th c.  [04 examples]

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In a wiki article is presented a case of a possible early depiction of the Devil; taken from Dendle [2001], p. 140, and mentioned as disputed.

fig. 66: Mosaic in the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna - 6th c.

The scene is taken from the gospel of Matthew [25:31-46], where Jesus in his glory separates the nations during the final judgement, like a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats. The ones on his right go to heaven as righteous, the others to the Devil and his angels. Thus there's a possibility that the angel on Jesus's left is the Devil, actually declared with a different color, blue.

This doesn't seem that probable to me, as this angel still has a halo over his head; a little inappropriate for the Devil.

Though it isn't a solid proof, in similar depictions of the final judgement that I've tracked, either there's no Devil obviously, or he's clearly different. However, they aren't depicting this specific parable.

fig. 67: BNF Ms 3516, France - 13th c., f. 154v

fig. 68: Sainte-Geneviève 1273, 'Psautier de Marguerite de Bourgogne', France - 14th c., f. 19r

fig. 69: WLB - Stuttgart Cod.bibl.fol.23, 'Stuttgarter Psalter', Saint-Germain-des-Prés FRA [CarolEmp] - 1st half of 9th c., f. 76va

The Devil by Dante [03 examples]

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I set as a limit the Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri of the early 14th century [1320 CE ca]. It seemed to me rational as it's maybe the most popular piece of literature, or at least renowned, that suggests a somehow altered version in demonology. Nevertheless it's a poetic allegorical work, not a theological one, like for example Augustine's Civitate Dei. In Dante the Devil has three heads [Inferno: Canto XXXIV]...

fig. 70: BL Add MS 19587, Dante's Divina Commedia, Naples - 1370 CE ca, f. 58r

fig. 71: BL Yates Thompson MS 36, Dante's Divina Commedia, Tuscany - mid 15th c., f. 52v

fig. 72: Vat UrbLat 365, Dante's Divina Commedia, 15th c., f. 93r

References:          [up]

• Dendle, Peter [2001], Satan Unbound: The Devil in Old English Narrative Literature, 2001
• Martin, Dale Basil [2010], When Did Angels Become Demons?, in Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 129, No. 4 (WINTER 2010), pp. 657-677
• PG: Patrologia Graeca [Migne]
• PL: Patrologia Latina [Migne]
• Russell, Jeffrey Burton [1987], Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, 1987
• Schiller, Gertrud [1971], Iconography of Christian art, Volume 1, 1971
• Walton, John H. [2008], 'Satan' in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings: A Compendium of Contemporary Biblical Scholarship, by Tremper Longman III, Peter Enns (eds.), 2008, pp. 714-717
• The Temptations of Christ, web article in imaginemdei.blogspot